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Behavior and/or Constellation
A
Adorn-Body
Using the trunk to place or throw vegetation or an object onto the top of the head, neck or back. In some instances such...
Adult-Intervention
An adult elephant, typically female, intervening in an interaction between younger elephants, or engaging in behavior, i...
Advance-Toward
Purposeful, directed walking with hostile intent toward another elephant(s), or toward a perceived non-elephant threat, ...
Aggressive-Whoosh
At close range a Forward-Trunk-Swing combined with a purposeful, powerful, blowing of air through the trunk to threaten....
Alarmed-Trumpet
A shrill, short (less than a second in duration) breathy trumpet emitted when an elephant is startled, suddenly frighted...
Allo-Check-Tusk
Using the tip of the trunk, or its fingers, to feel the tusks of another elephant. Typically observed between males duri...
Allo-Suckling
A lactating female Suckling a calf who is not her offspring; a calf Suckling from a lactating female who is not his or h...
Allo-Trunk-Sucking
An elephant grasping the trunk of another elephant, placing it in his or her mouth and sucking on it. A rare and possibl...
Allomother-Intervention
An adolescent, juvenile or older calf, typically female, intervening in an interaction between younger elephants, or eng...
Allomothering
Adult, juvenile and adolescent females engaging in behavior to comfort, assist, protect, babysit, shepherd and retrieve ...
Apprehensive
An elephant Standing or moving attentively with the Chin-Up, Ears-Stiff and Trunk-Curled-Under or in a J-Trunk position....
As-Touched-Rumble
A short (1-2 seconds in duration) rumble made by an infant or calf when approached and or touched in a caring way by an ...
Attain-Higher-Ground
An elephant threatening another (elephant or non-elephant) by climbing up a bank, onto an anthill or termite mound, or b...
B
Babysitting
One or more other females showing interest in and/or direct care towards a calf when it is separated from its mother for...
Back-Away
In a form of Retreat-From, an elephant may walk away in reverse, or Back-Away, from a threatening elephant or situation....
Back-Bowing
Standing or walking with Chin-Up and Tail-Raising which causes an elephant’s back to appear bowed. The elephant may Look...
Back-Toward
Turning to present posterior and walking backward toward another or other, often higher-ranking, elephant(s). Back-Towar...
Back-Toward-Carcass
Turning to present the posterior and walking backwards toward the body or bones of a dead elephant. All age sex groups m...
Bark
The bark is a transient and mainly noisy call. It differs from the other elephant calls due to its short duration. Often...
Baroo-Rumble
A short (1.5-3 seconds in duration) loud, Open-Mouthed, highly modulated, and acoustically noisy ‘wooooaaaarrrrr' or ‘ba...
Bathing
An elephant standing, sitting, or lying in water; may float, swim, be completely submerged in water or engaged in playfu...
Begging-Rumble
A single or series of very soft, short (generally 1-2 seconds), tonal rumbles, characterized by an ‘rrrrmmmm’ sound of d...
Bend-Down-Bite-Vegetation
An elephant, typically a calf under age three, kneeling down to bite off stubborn vegetation he or she is unable to extr...
Bite-off-Dirt
An elephant biting off and discarding roots embedded in soil that have, inadvertently, been pulled up in a trunkful of v...
Bite-Trunk
An elephant grasping, holding the trunk of another elephant, placing it in its mouth and biting it. Bite-Trunk may be ob...
Blow
An audible exhalation of air through the trunk that appears to be made for the purpose of clearing the nasal passages. A...
Blow-Bubbles
An elephant submerging its trunk or mouth under water and purposefully and/or repeatedly blowing bubbles. Newborn infant...
Body-Axis-Pointing
Using the axis of the body to point in the direction an elephant wishes to travel. To be considered Body-Axis-Pointing t...
Body-Contact
Standing or resting with the body purposefully touching another. Closely related individuals often rest while intentiona...
Body-Nudge
An adult female rejecting the begging advances of her calf through a sideways movement of her hip or body that physicall...
Bonding-Ceremony
An exuberant display of behavior involving a constellation of vocal, chemical, tactile and visual communication that may...
Bonding-Chorus
Rumbles, Roars, Trumpets, and Snorts associated with elephant Bonding-Ceremonies. Elephants are highly expressive, demon...
Bonding-Rumble
Bonding-Rumble is a general term to refer to Rumbles that occur during Bonding-Ceremonies that have not been determined ...
Bow-Neck
An aggressor lowering the head and bowing the neck downward and simultaneously tilting the head upward so that the tusks...
Bow-Neck-Advance-Toward
An aggressor lowers the head by bowing the neck downward and simultaneously tilting the head upward so that the tusks ar...
Bow-Neck-Charge
An aggressor lowers the head by bowing the neck downward and simultaneously tilting the head upward so that the tusks ar...
Break-Sapling
Using the tusks hold, lift, move, and or twist a sapling to break it. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full reference l...
Browsing
Using a combination of trunk, feet, tusks and mouth, to manipulate, extract and ingest woody twigs, branches, bark and l...
Browsing
Using a combination of trunk, feet, tusks and mouth, to manipulate, extract and ingest woody twigs, branches, bark and l...
Browsing-Technique
Using a variety of different techniques involving a combination of trunk, feet, tusks and mouth, to manipulate, extract ...
Bunching
A group of individuals clustering or bunching together a tight defensive circle, typically with the young in the center ...
Bush-Bashing
Tossing the head and tusks back and forth through bushes or other vegetation creating noise and visual commotion. In an ...
C
Cadenced-Rumble
Two or more related (usually adult) females engaging in a sequence of relatively flat, low-pitched, tonal rumbles of mod...
Call-Calf-Rumble
A short, unmodulated rumble given by a mother that has the immediate effect of calling a wandering calf back to her side...
Caressing
Using the trunk to gently touch, caress or fondle another elephant in a reassuring, comforting or affiliative manner. Wh...
Carry
Using the trunk to grasp, hold, support and move someone (e.g. animal, human, stillborn infant, infant needing assistanc...
Carry-Bone
Picking up and carrying a bone in the trunk. Elephants are known to show intense interest in, pick up and carry the bone...
Carry-Carcass
An adult female using her trunk and tusks to carry the body of a stillborn or otherwise dead infant. We include referenc...
Casual-Stance
Standing or Walking with the trunk draped over a tusk in a relaxed and “casual” manner. Predominantly a posture adopted ...
Charge
Rushing or ‘Running’ toward another elephant predator or other adversary. Also occurs during play. Charges come in many ...
Charge-Kneel-Down
An individual Charging at another and then, when the elephant gets close to the object of its Charge, apparently, purpos...
Chase
A male elephant with an erection pursuing a female at a fast walk or shuffling run. As he Runs-After the estrous female ...
Check-Temporin
An elephant reaching up with its trunk tip to sniff his or her own Temporin. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full refe...
Check-Tusk
Using the tip of the trunk, or its fingers, to feel the individual’s own tusk. Typically employed by adult males after a...
Chin-In
A male in musth Standing or Walking with his head held well above his shoulders, and his “chin” or jaw held “tucked in” ...
Chin-Out
An elephant Standing with its “chin” or face stretched outward toward another elephant he or she is facing making the ne...
Chin-Up
Standing or Walking with the “chin” or jawline lifted up so that it is almost parallel to the ground; if Walking away, t...
Circus-Pose
Lifting and holding the trunk up in an S-shape, similar to Periscope-Trunk, but with upper bend of the trunk resting aga...
Clamber
An individual moving in an awkward or laborious manner, typically crawling on the hind knees and on the front wrists. Of...
Climb-Upon
A calf clambering onto another calf or juvenile who is lying down. A calf or juvenile lying down, or getting down on its...
Coalition
Adult females (or very rarely adult males) engaging in a highly coordinated action against another elephant, group of el...
Coalition-Calling
The Rumbling and Trumpeting by adult, adolescent and juvenile females that is associated with the building of a Coalitio...
Coalition-Rumbling
Rumbling by adult females in the context of Coalition formation. During conflicts between females, especially between fe...
Comfort
A collective term for Maintenance activities engaged in by elephants to provide increased comfort such as Dusting, Mud-S...
Comfort-Activity
A general term for any behaviors that function to increase comfort such as Dusting, Mud-Splashing, Mud-Wallowing, Scratc...
Comfort-Behavior
A collective term for Maintenance activities engaged in by elephants to provide increased comfort such as Dusting, Mud-S...
Comfort-Suckling
An adolescent female, or other non-lactating female, permitting a calf to Suckle from her; or a calf Suckling from a non...
Comfort-Technique
Specific techniques used by elephants to resolve a Comfort related challenge. See list of behaviors. References: Poole &...
Comment-Rumble
A soft, low-pitched, flat, tonal rumble of medium duration (~2.5-4 seconds) elicited by external events and associated w...
Conciliation
An act of conciliation following an act of escalated aggression (e.g. Pushing, Tusking) between two elephants, often mem...
Consorting
A (usually musth) male and an estrous female both engaged in maintaining proximity to one another - the male engaged in ...
Contact-Calling
An elephant Contact-Rumbling in association with Head-Lifting, Listening behavior, and rhythmic Ear-Flapping. A Contact-...
Contact-Rumble
Long (~4-6.5 second duration), typically powerful, throaty, Open-Mouthed, highly modulated rumbles that are associated w...
Contagion
Behavioral contagion refers to the propensity for certain behavior exhibited by one animal to be copied by another(s) wh...
Contemplating
An elephant who is attentively following an event, situation, individual or interaction, or contemplating a sound, smell...
Coo-Rumble
A soft, flat, tonal rumble of medium duration (~2.5-4.5 seconds) and low pitch, given by adult or juvenile females in th...
Coprophagia
Using the trunk to Grasp or Pluck and ingest portions of faeces from the fresh dung pile of another elephant. References...
Cover-Carcass
Collecting vegetation in the trunk or gathering dirt with the feet, tusks and trunk and using it to cover or bury the bo...
Croaking
An elephant producing an unusual clicking, purring, humming, or croaking sound of variable duration while they are relax...
Cry
A short (lasting less than half a second in duration) crying call given by an infant or calf under the age of five years...
Cry-Rumble
A combination call that consists of a short Cry followed by a Rumble without an inhalation. Cry-Rumbles are given by an ...
Cry-Rumble
A combination call that consists of a short Cry followed by a Rumble without an inhalation. Cry-Rumbles are given by an ...
D
Defecating
Passing faeces. As a component of Maintenance, Defecating is observed in all age sex groups. In the other contexts in wh...
Dig-Minerals
Using a combination of feet and tusks to loosen or dig up mineral-laden-soil and the trunk to transfer soil to the mouth...
Dig-Water
An individual swinging a forefoot foreward and backward or from side to side to dig a well to access water beneath the s...
Digging
An individual moving its legs and feet in such a way as to remove clods of mud or dirt to access something of interest o...
Displacement Behavior
Self-grooming when grooming is inappropriate, or plucking at vegetation, as if foraging, but may not actually ingest any...
Displacement-Feeding
An Attentive elephant plucking at vegetation, as if foraging, but typically not ingesting any of the material, or doing ...
Displacement-Grooming
An attentive elephant self-grooming when grooming is inappropriate. May include throwing dust, vegetation, etc. onto sel...
Displacement-Object-Play
An attentive elephant playing with an object in a desultory or distracted fashion. Performed in conflict situations such...
Double-Suckling
An adult female permitting two calves to Suckle from her simultaneously. References: Douglas-Hamilton 1972: ch 6. (Full ...
Drinking
An individual sucking water into its trunk and pouring it into its mouth. In some cases, with unskilled calves, or indiv...
Driving
Within a Consort, during peak estrous, and immediately prior to Mounting, the Guarding male using his forehead to push a...
Dueling
Two elephants rushing toward one another, head to head, attempting to Tusk, Push, Ram or interlock tusks to leverage an ...
Dust-with-Semen
Following a Mating, the mated female or her companions using their trunk fingers to pick up quantities of semen from the...
Dust-Wound
An indiviual using the trunk to throw and blow dust onto a wound. Amboseli's dusty soils are clays formed from volcanic ...
Dusting
Using the feet to kick and loosen earth and then the trunk to scoop it up and throw and blow it over the body. Reference...
E
Ear-Brush
Purposefully brushing a (usually) flared ear against the face, head or body of another. References: O’Connell-Rodwell et...
Ear-Flap-Slide
Flapping the ears moderately loudly and then swishing them against the neck and shoulders causing a rasping sound. For a...
Ear-Folding
Forcing the lower half of ear under and back so that a prominent horizontal ridge or fold appears across the ear. In an ...
Ear-Lifting
Spreading and Lifting the ears so that the ear tops are lifted above the top of the head. An elephant normally holds its...
Ear-Secretion
A sudden squirting or streaming of secretion from the ear during events that cause high arousal, such as the birth of a ...
Ear-Slap
Slapping the ears loudly and sharply against the neck and shoulders. In a Movement Space and Leadership and Avoidance co...
Ear-Spreading
Standing or moving with the ears fully extended at ~90 degrees from body. An elephant normally holds its ears in a relax...
Ear-Swat
An individual turning its head to one side and slapping one ear hard against the side of its body to remove or kill a tr...
Ear-Wave
A musth male swings the upper portion of the ear stiffly and vigorously forward and backward. The speed and forcefulness...
Ears-Back
Holding or flattening the ears against the neck or body. This posture is most often seen when an elephant is running awa...
Ears-Stiff
An elephant holding his or her ears tensed, cocked or stiffened. An elephant normally holds its ears in a relaxed positi...
Eat-Afterbirth
In the minutes after a birth, an adult female picking up, carrying, placing in her mouth and ingesting part of the birth...
End-Zone-Dance
Following a successful Coalition against an adversary or a predator (often people) when the opposition has been routed, ...
Escalated-Contest
A fight or prolonged battle that included bouts of Dueling. Escalated-Contests may be short-lived or may last over 6 hou...
Estrous-Roar
A relatively short (~1.5-3.5 seconds), noisy, pulsating Roaring call by an estrous female when pursued by a male. The Ro...
Estrous-Rumble
An estrous female calling with a distinctive long (~5-6 seconds), highly modulated, rolling rumble that she repeats at i...
Estrous-Running-Rumble
The Roar of an estrous female is often preceded by a series of short pulsated growling sounds as she Runs-Away from purs...
Estrous-Running-Rumble-Roar
An Estrous-Running-Rumble followed by an Estrous-Roar without inhalation is referred to as an Estrous-Running-Rumble-Roa...
Estrous-Song
An estrous female calling with a series of distinctive long (~5-6 seconds), highly modulated, rolling rumbles that she r...
Estrous-Walk
An estrous female avoiding males and walking with a characteristic long and purposeful gait in an arc away from her fami...
Exaggerated-Splash-with-Foot
In a visual and audible display of power, using the forefeet in a vigourous and exaggerated swinging motion to splash wa...
Exaggerated-Walk
Walking with an obvious bouncing swagger; the head moves up and down and the trunk swings from side to side more than in...
Explore-Touch-Foot
Using a fore- or hind-foot to investigate or touch an object. References: Poole & Granli 2004 [Foot-Touch]; Poole & Gr...
Explore-Touch-Mouth
Using the mouth, tongue and teeth to investigate, touch, stroke an object. During Lone & Object-Play elephants often put...
Explore-Touch-Trunk
Using the trunk to investigate or touch an object. References: Poole & Granli 2003, Poole & Granli 2011, Poole & Granli...
Eye-Blinking
Opening and closing of the eyes by an Attentive or Vigilant elephant. This is contrasted with the normal position in whi...
Eyes-Wide
Opening the eyes wide, sometime exposing the ‘white’ of the eye. An elephant normally casts is eyes downward. An alarmed...
F
Feed-Carcass
Purposefully dropping food, offering food, or putting food into the mouth of an elephant who is dead. References: Croze,...
Feeding
Using a combination of the trunk, feet, tusks and sometimes the head and entire body, to engage in activities to obtain,...
Feeding
Using a combination of the trunk, feet, tusks and sometimes the head and entire body, to engage in activities to obtain,...
Fell-Tree
With the trunk down or extended up the length of a tree trunk, resting the head and trunk against the tree and employing...
Female-Chorus
Female(s) responding to the sound, smell or physical presence of a musth male by Head-Raising, Rapid-Ear-Flapping and em...
Female-Chorus-Rumble
A series of modulated and, typically overlapping, or ‘chorused’ tonal rumbles, given by female elephants in response to ...
Filter-Water
Swishing the tip, or fingers, of the trunk back and forth on the surface of the water to disperse floating debris. Then,...
Flehmen
Placing the tip of the trunk in or near a (usually) liquid substance (often urine) and then curling the trunk, raising i...
Flehmen-Carcass
Placing the tip of the trunk on or near the body or bones of a dead elephant and then curling the trunk, raising it vert...
Flop-Trunk-On-Head
In the context of Social Play, typically while sitting or kneeling, or when Mud-Wallowing or Bathing in deep water, rais...
Floppy-Running
Elephant(s) ‘running’ with a loose, floppy gait, shaking a lowered head from side-to-side, letting ears flap against the...
Follow
Walking after, trying to maintain close proximity, though not necessarily physical contact, to another individual. In a...
Food-Sampling
Picking up a potential food item with the trunk, and placing it in the mouth and possibly chewing it begins around the a...
Food-Sharing
An individual sharing food with another or others. For example: a male (typically in musth) sharing a tree he has felled...
Food-Stealing
An individual taking food from the mouth or trunk of another elephant. While infants, calves, juveniles or adolescents w...
Foot-Forward
Standing facing another elephant with one Foot-Forward while adopting an expectant attitude, such as Periscope-Trunk, Ci...
Foot-Lifting
Raising and holding a foreleg off the ground. Raising and holding a hind-foot may also be observed although this is less...
Foot-Nudge
A mother, or allomother, using a fore- or hind-foot to nudge an infant or calf awake, as when she or the group is ready ...
Foot-Scuffing
An individual taking short, shallow steps and purposefully dragging or scuffing the soles of the feet on the ground to c...
Foot-Splashing
Using a forefoot in a swinging motion to splash water and mud onto the underside of the body. References: Poole & Granli...
Foot-Swinging
Raising and tentatively swinging a foreleg, intermittently. Swinging of a hind-foot may also be observed although this i...
Foraging-Technique
Specific actions or techniques used by elephants to acquire, manipulate and ingest different types of forage. See the li...
Foreleg-Block
An adult female rejecting the suckling advances by her calf by physically blocking access to her breast with a foreleg. ...
Forward-Trunk-Swing
A swinging or tossing of the trunk in the direction of an adversary typically while simultaneously blowing forcefully ou...
Freezing
A sudden cessation of all movement by an individual or group of individuals, holding stock-still, apparently Listening o...
Full-Retreat
Following a threat to a predator or perceived threat (e.g. Standing-Tall, Charging) an elephant or group of elephants tu...
G
Grasp-Branch-Bite
Grasp branch or branchlet with the trunk and then move the head into position so as to bite it off with the teeth. Refer...
Grasp-Branch-Break-with-Foot
Grasping a low growing branch or branchlet with the trunk and then stepping down on it with the foot to break it from th...
Grasp-Branch-Break-with-Tusk
Grasping a branch with the trunk and pulling it downward over a tusk and, simultaneously lifting the head and tusk upwar...
Grasp-Break-Branch
Grasping a branch or branchlet with the trunk, pulling and breaking it. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full reference...
Grasp-Breast
A calf attempting to Suckle, or engaging in Suckling, grasping his or her mother’s breast with the trunk and holding in ...
Grasp-Grass-Slice-with-Foot
Grasping and steadying a clump of grass or forbs with the distal portion of the trunk, and detaching it from the ground ...
Grasp-Kick-Grass
An individual grasping a clump of grass with the trunk and using a forefoot to kick at it to loosen it from the soil. Of...
Grasp-Leg
Using the trunk to briefly grasp the leg of another. This behavior is adopted by different age/sex groups in different c...
Grasp-Seedling-Pull
Using the trunk to grasp a seedling and then pulling to uproot or break it free. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full ...
Grasp-Seedling-Slice-with-Foot
An individual using the trunk to grasp a stubborn seedling or sapling and dislodge it with a kick of a forefoot. This te...
Grasp-Tail
Using the trunk to briefly grasp the tail of another. This is perhaps most commonly observed during social play, but mal...
Grasp-Trunk
Using the trunk to grasp the trunk of another. This is most often observed when mothers and allomothers grasp the trunk ...
Grasp-Tusk
Using the trunk to grasp the tusk of another. Primarily observed during Sparring or Social Play between two males, but c...
Grasp-Water-Plant-Pull
Using the trunk to feel about under water for a suitable plant, grasping its stems with the trunk and pulling to uproot ...
Grasp-Water-Plant-Slice-with-Foot
Using the trunk to feel about under water for a suitable plant, grasping its stems with the trunk to stabilize it, and u...
Grazing
Feeding on low-growing plants such as grasses, herbs, forbs or reeds. A wide variety of grazing techniques may be employ...
Grazing
Using a combination of trunk, feet and, occasionally, tusks to manipulate, extract and ingest low growing plants such as...
Greeting-Ceremony
During a Greeting-Ceremony members of a family or bond group may rush to meet one another while emitting loud, modulated...
Greeting-Rumble
An explosive burst of long (~5-7 seconds) powerful, throaty, highly modulated and overlapping rumbles when members of a ...
Group-Advance
Family group rushing toward an adversary, predator or perceived threat en masse in a highly coordinated manner and with ...
Group-Charge
Family group rushing en masse toward an adversary, other elephants, predators or other perceived threat in a highly coor...
Group-March
A tightly coordinated group of elephants walking with long strides, in a directed, purposeful, intentional manner, as if...
Grumble-Rumble
An undulating Rumble of medium duration (~1.5-3.5 seconds) with an audibly detectable and distinctive complaining or whi...
Grumble-Rumble-Cry-Grumble-Rumble
A Grumble-Rumble followed by a Cry and another Grumble-Rumble in the same exhalation. References: Poole 2011, Poole & G...
Guard-Carcass
Standing by or over the body of a dead elephant (or other animal or human) and defending it from predators or other elep...
Guard-Carcass
Standing by or over the body of a dead elephant (or other animal or human) and defending it from predators or other elep...
Guarding
A musth (usually) male attempting to prevent other males from obtaining access to an estrous female. To be considered a ...
Guide-Branch
An individual using the trunk fingers to carefully guide a thorny branch into the mouth for chewing. The use of the trun...
Guiding
An elephant vocalising or moving its body, legs, ears or trunk in a manner that appears to be intended to show, guide, h...
H
Head-Butt
An individual using the head to forcefully butt and then press down on an adversary. Often observed during physical atta...
Head-Dip
A single slight dipping and raising movement of the head with Ears-Spread, typically combined with reaching to Touch-Gro...
Head-Dip-Touch-Ground
A single slight dipping and raising movement of the head, combined with a reaching out and touching of the ground with t...
Head-High
Standing or moving with head held well above shoulders, chin tucked in (Chin-In), so that the elephant looks squarely at...
Head-Jerk
A single rapid upward movement of the head that then returns down slowly. In a more pronounced version of the Head-Jerk ...
Head-Low
Lowering of the head so that the top is below the level of the top of the shoulder blades. This posture makes an individ...
Head-Raising
Raising the head during an excited, affiliative interaction such as a Little-Greeting, Greeting, Caressing, Coalition fo...
Head-Rub
An elephant rubs another with his or her head. References: Goldenberg & Wittemyer 2018. (Full reference list)...
Head-Shaking
An abrupt shaking of the head, which causes the ears to flap sharply and dust to fly. Head-Shaking usually starts by the...
Head-Swinging
A slow swinging of the head from one side to the other; the elephant stands Attentive and Vigilant, typically Freezing a...
Head-Swipe
A sharp and sudden swinging or tossing of the head and tusks down, up and sideways, to threaten or hit an elephant by it...
Head-Toss
As performed by a musth male, raising and lowering the head or lifting and swinging head and trunk with vigor, sometimes...
Head-Waggling
Waggling of the head from side to side. This behaviour is observed during Social Play as a component of Solicit-Play and...
Helping
An elephant Digging around, Lifting, Pushing or Pulling another elephant to assist it to stand, get up a bank, out of a ...
High-Fiving
Two or more elephants coming together and, standing face to face, lifting and intertwining trunks above raised heads, an...
Horizontal-Trunk
Reaching out horizontally with a full extension of the trunk to inspect a nearby object or scent that the elephant appar...
Husky-Cry
A short, hoarse or husky sounding call produced by a newborn elephant when distressed. Husky-Cries range from barely aud...
Husky-Cry-Roar-Rumble
A Husky-Cry followed by a Roar and a Rumble in one exhalation. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full reference list)...
I
J
K
Kick-Back
Kicking back with the hind legs to push another individual or object away. This action may be seen in a number of contex...
Kick-Dust
An individual Advancing-Toward or Charging in the direction of an offending object (elephant, other animal, predator, hu...
Kick-Grass
An individual using a forefoot to kick at a clump of grass to loosen it from the soil. Often employed with short grass s...
Kidnap
Forcibly taking an infant belonging to another family away from its mother. Elephants may use their trunks, tusks and fo...
Kneel-Down
An elephant getting down on its knees is an invitation to play. Typically an older female juvenile or calf will lie or k...
L
Lean
One elephant presses all or part of its body against another. References: O’Connell-Rodwell et al 2011. (Full reference ...
Legs-Crossed
Standing with the hindlegs crossed, one over the other. An individual may engage in Legs-Crossed when merely Standing - ...
Lets-Go-Rumble
A moderately loud, relatively flat, tonal Rumble of long duration (~4.5-6.5 seconds) and low pitch that is associated wi...
Lets-Go-Stance
Standing on the periphery of a group, purposefully facing in the direction she wishes to travel by Body-Axis-Pointing, a...
Lie-Down
An elephant lying down on one side. An individual may engage in Lie-Down in the context of sleep or as an invitation to ...
Lift-Carcass
Using a combination of the tusks, trunk, head and/or feet to attempt to lift the body or appendages of a dead elephant. ...
Lifting
Using the feet, tusks or trunk to attempt to lift or carry an infant, to get it to its feet, up a bank, out of a well, o...
Listening
The body and extremities suddenly cease moving and the elephant Stands Head-Raising and Ear-Spreading with Ears-Stiff. T...
Little-Greeting
A Rumbling greeting exchange between members of an elephant family in which one (usually older and female) approaches an...
Little-Greeting-Rumble
A Rumbling, greeting exchange between members of an elephant family in which one (usually older and female) approaches a...
Look-At
An obvious opening of the eyes to look, attentively, in the direction of interest. An elephant’s eyes are normally cast ...
Look-Back
Standing or walking away while looking back over the shoulder. As an elephant Looks-Back it may flatten an ear against i...
Lunge
A sudden forward thrust of the body and tusks, often with the trunk outstretched, to attack another. May be observed in ...
M
Maintain-Proximity
Individuals Orienting-Toward, Backing-Toward, Walking, Waiting, Walk-Waiting or moving in such a way as to maintain a ce...
Marking
To be written....
Mating
A Mating is assumed to have occurred if a male successfully Mounts an estrous female who Stands-to-Mate rather than movi...
Mating-Pandemonium
A mated female’s relatives and companions joining her in calling and displaying following a mating. Females streaming wi...
Mating-Pandemonium-Calling
Powerful chorused Rumbling, Trumpeting and Roaring emitted by an oestrous female and her relatives and associates during...
Mount-Carcass
An elephant, typically male, and often with a Penis-Erection, placing his forelegs on a dead elephant, as if to Mount it...
Mounting
An elephant (typically male) succeeding in placing his forelegs on the back of another elephant. Mounting occurs in Cour...
Mourn
Mourning can be defined as a shared, social response to loss. In the case of elephants it refers to a set of behaviors t...
Mouth-Carcass
Using the mouth, tongue and teeth to investigate, touch, stroke an elephant bone. Elephants may pick up ribs and other s...
Movement-Initiation
Engaging in behaviors that successfully initiate a group movement or collective action. Movement-Initiation is typically...
Moving-While-Feeding
Moving or Walking while continuing to Graze or Browse. References: Poole 1982: 27. (Full reference list)...
Moving-While-Feeding
Moving, or Walking while continuing to Graze or Browse....
Mud-Splashing
Using vigorous kicking or swinging movements of the forelegs to splash mud or water onto the body, or using the trunk to...
Mud-Wallowing
Lying in and rolling about in mud or muddy water. Engaged in by all age/sex groups, ostensibly to keep cool and/or prote...
Musth-Display
A constellation of behaviors that are typically displayed by males in musth to advertise their heightened sexual and agg...
Musth-Rumble
A moderately long (~4-5 seconds in duration), very low frequency, distinctive rumble with a characteristically pulsating...
Musth-Temporal-Gland-Secretion
Secretion from the swollen temporal glands of a musth male. This secretion, which creates a dark brown streak down the s...
Musth-Temporal-Gland-Swelling
The enlarged temporal glands of males in full musth. Older, higher-ranking musth males secrete more heavily and persiste...
Musth-Trunk-Wrinkle
A small dent or ''wrinkle'' in the trunk in an unexpected location based on the curve of the trunk. Musth-Trunk-Wrinkles...
Musth-Walk
Musth male walking with an assertive, purposeful stride (Purposeful-Walk), a rolling swagger to his gait, head held high...
N
Nasal-Throb
A throbbing or fluttering movement in the forehead of an elephant at the position where the nasal passages enter the sku...
Nasal-Trumpet
A nasal sounding trumpet of less than a second in duration that is noisier and significantly lower in frequency than all...
Nose-Picking
Holding the end of the trunk over the tip of a tusk and twisting the trunk back and forth. Observed only among elephants...
O
Object-Play
Using the trunk, tusks or feet to play with an object. The elephant may engage with man-made objects (such as paper, pla...
Open-Mouth
Opening the mouth. Covered by the trunk the mouths of elephants are not very obvious sources of visual displays, but dur...
Open-Mouth-to-Open-Mouth
Opening the mouth while touching it to another elephant’s mouth who is also displaying Open-Mouth. This behavior may be ...
Orient-Away
Reorientation of the body to face or look away from another elephant, animal or object of interest. Displayed by all age...
Orient-Toward
Reorientation of the body to face or look at another elephant, animal or object of interest. Displayed by all age/sex gr...
P
Pack-Grass
Grasping a trunkful of grass and then using the tip of the trunk to repeatedly roll it against the underside of the trun...
Panic-Running
A very fast, quiet, smooth Running-Away while Tail-Raising with Chin-Up and Ears-Stiff/Ears-Back. If elephants are in a ...
Parallel-Walk
Two males, typically in musth, pacing in parallel to one another in a Purposeful-Walk often in a lead up to or during an...
Penis-Erection
A flaccid elephant penis is normally sheathed between the hind legs. As the penis starts to engorge it may partially ext...
Periscope-Trunk
Lifting and holding the trunk up in an S-shape. This posture is used in many contexts: Most well-known is the apparent a...
Perpendicular-Walk
Purposeful-Walking by a lead female that aims perpendicular to, rather than directly toward, a predator or perceived thr...
Phalanx
A group of elephants advancing threateningly toward an adversary in a tight formation with a broad front. References: Po...
Pharyngeal-Pouch-Suck
Inserting the trunk deep into the mouth cavity and down into the pharyngeal pouch, sucking water therein into the trunk ...
Pinch-Genitals
Using the fingers of the trunk to ‘pinch’ the genitals of another. An older Begging calf may pinch its mother’s genitals...
Pirouette
Spinning or pivoting around, so as to turn rapidly toward and away from others. Pirouetting may be displayed by highly a...
Place
Placing the tip of the trunk over a scent of interest and immediately flattening the fingers of the trunk over the sampl...
Play-Trumpet
A short (less than a second), high-pitched, high intensity Trumpet emitted by elephants engaged in spirited lone or Soci...
Pluck-Branchlets
Using the distal portion of the trunk to pluck leaves and small branchlets from trees and shrubs. All age/sex groups eng...
Pluck-Leaves
Using the fingers of the trunk tip or the distal portion of the trunk to pluck individual leaves. References: Poole & Gr...
Pluck-Mushrooms
Using the fingers of the trunk tip or the distal portion of the trunk to pluck individual mushrooms. References: Poole &...
Pluck-Object
Using the fingers of the trunk tip or the distal portion of the trunk to pluck an item such as, a thorn, a tick, immobil...
Pluck-Seed-Pods
Using the fingers of the trunk tip to pluck seed pods from the ground or from a tree. All age/sec groups engage in this ...
Plunge
An act of entering a body of water head first allowing the rest of the body to collapse into the water with a splash. Ma...
Post-Copulatory-Stance
An estrous female stepping forward from the male she has just mated, Head-Raising, Ear-Lifting, Rapid-Ear-Flapping and T...
Procession
Walking single file in a long line of elephants, from point A to B. Among family groups the matriarch often takes up the...
Prolonged-Pursuit
A persistent, prolonged and aggressive follow at a fast walk or run by one individual (usually in musth) after another (...
Protest-Trumpet
A Trumpet given in protest to some unpleasant or disturbing. It may often be given in association with Head-Shaking and ...
Pull-Carcass
Using the trunk to pull on the appendages of a dead elephant. Elephants may be observed to grasp the trunk, leg, tusks o...
Pulling
Attempting to assist an infant to get to its feet, up a bank, out of a well, or similar predicament; or to assist a help...
Pulsated-Trumpet
Longish trumpeting (~1-2 seconds in duration) that is expelled in a sequence of breathy pulses that are modulated in fre...
Purposeful-Walk
An elephant walking with long strides in a directed, intentional manner as if he or she has a goal in mind. The normal g...
Pushing
Pushing the head or base of trunk into the back, side, head or trunk of another to move it away or along or to assist it...
Q
R
Ramming
Rushing at another with head lowered and trunk curved under (to expose tusks) and goring or poking it with the tusks. Th...
Rapid-Ear-Flapping
Flapping the ears vigorously and rapidly in a raised position. Rapid-Ear-Flapping is usually associated with Head-Raisin...
Reach-Over
An elephant, typically male, and usually with an erection, reaching his trunk over or along the back of another elephant...
Reach-Touch
Swinging of the trunk and body during intense social arousal to touch nearest neighbor relatives during Bonding, Coaliti...
Reaching-High
At the end of a Run-After or a Charge when the attacker slows his or her pursuit, he or she may extend the trunk upward ...
Rear-Guard
A female at the back of a group of elephants in Full-Retreat, placing herself between her family and the perceived threa...
Redirected-Aggression
Directing aggression toward an object or individual that is irrelevant to the current situation. When the tendency to at...
Reject-Begging
An adult female rejecting Begging advances by her calf by ignoring its vocal and physical Begging, by walking away or by...
Reject-Suckle
An adult female ignoring or rejecting the Solicit-Food or Solicit-Suckling advances of her vocally or physically Begging...
Remove-Foreign-Object
An individual or individuals toucing or attempting to remove a foreign object such as a veterinary dart or spear protrud...
Rest-Head
An elephant resting his or her head on another. Rest-Head often occurs during play when one elephant rests his or her he...
Resting
A cessation of activity and attentiveness to relax, sleep, or recover strength. Elephants may Rest, doze or sleep either...
Resting-Trunk
An elephant Standing or Resting with a fully relaxed trunk hanging down and folded onto the ground. Resting elephants ma...
Retreat-From
Walking away from a threatening elephant. The individual may adopt a Head-Low posture and Look-Back warily. The behavior...
Retrieve
An adult, adolescent, juvenile or older calf escorting an infant or young calf, who has wandered off or been left behind...
Rev
A short (<1 second) tonal vocalization that is almost always followed by a rumble without an exhalation. Revs have a har...
Rip-Grass
Grasping a clump of grass with the trunk and, using the strength of the trunk alone to tear the blades, then transferrin...
Rip-Seedling
Grasping a seedling with the trunk and, using the strength of the trunk alone, breaking the stem, or uprooting the seedl...
Roar
A highly variable roaring, bellowing, screaming, shrieking, or squealing call typically lasting 1-2 seconds in duration....
Roar-Rumble
A combination call that starts with a Roar (see Roar) and is followed without inhalation by a Rumble (see Rumble). Refer...
Roar-Rumble
A combination call that starts with a Roar (see Roar) and is followed without inhalation by a Rumble (see Rumble). Refer...
Roaring-Rumble
Powerful, noisy, highly modulated rumbles (3-4 seconds in duration) may be heard when elephants are confronting a danger...
Roll-Tree
Placing the base of the trunk, or the head, against a fallen tree and, using the entire body to push against it, rolling...
Rub-off-Dirt
Holding a clump of stubble (typically grass that has been grazed close to the ground by other herbivores) with the finge...
Rubbing
Rubbing the head, ears, legs or body against a tree trunk, log, stump or boulder, or on another elephant, often after Mu...
Rumble
calls with very low fundamental frequencies. Rumbles are the most frequently heard call type in the repertoire of all ag...
Rumble-Cry-Rumble
A combination call that consists of a Rumble followed by a Cry and a Rumble without an inhalation (see Cry). References:...
Rumble-Cry-Rumble
A combination call that consists of a Rumble followed by a Cry and a Rumble without an inhalation (see Cry). References:...
Rumble-Roar
A combination call that starts with a Rumble (see Rumble) and is followed without inhalation by a Roar (see Roar). Refer...
Rumble-Roar
A combination call that starts with a Rumble (see Rumble) and is followed without inhalation by a Roar (see Roar). Refer...
Rumble-Roar-Rumble
A combination call that consists of a Rumble followed by a Roar and then a Rumble without an inhalation (see Roar). Roar...
Rumble-Roar-Rumble
A combination call that consists of a Rumble followed by a Roar and then a Rumble without an inhalation (see Roar). Roar...
Rumble-Snort-Rumble
A Rumble followed by a Snort and another Rumble in one exhalation. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full reference list...
Rump-Present
An elephant backing toward another and presenting his or her rump for testing. Most typically females are observed to Ru...
Run-After
Moving at a fast amble, or ‘run’ after another elephant. Elephants may Run-After one another in Aggressive, Social Play ...
Run-Away
Moving at a fast amble, or ‘run’ away from another elephant. Elephants may Run-Away from one another in Submissive, Soci...
Run-Toward
An elephant running eagerly toward another in an affiliative or helping rather than a pursuing context. (Full referenc...
S
Sashay
An elephant taking exaggerated sideways steps, to manoeuvre rapidly into a new position that is immediately to the eleph...
Scrape-Ground
A vigorous scraping, ‘pawing’ or trampling of the ground with a forefoot, often churning up dust and debris. This behavi...
Scratch-Foot-Sole
Moving the sole of the foot back and forth on the ground, on a log, a stone or other rough object to scratch an itch. Re...
Scratch-with-Foot
An elephant using a fore- or hind-foot to scratch its own body, typically the genitals or inner legs. All age/sex groups...
Scratch-with-Object
Using the distal portion of the trunk, or the finger of the trunk to grasp an object (e.g. a stick) to scratch the body ...
Scratch-with-Tail
An individual using its tail to carefully and precisely scratch an itch on its hind quarters. References: Poole & Granli...
Scratch-with-Trunk
Using the curled distal portion of the trunk, or the trunk fingers, to scratch the body. References: Poole & Granli 2021...
Scratch-with-Tusk
Moving a particular point on the trunk back and forth over the tip of a tusk to relieve an itch. References: Poole & Gra...
Scrub-off-Thorns
Using the sole of the foot to carefully step on a branch with long, firm thorns, and then to scrub the foot back and for...
Separated-Rumble
An often barely audible, flat or descending humming or pulsating sounding Rumble (‘mm-mm-mm’), of medium duration (~2-3....
Shake-off-Dirt
Grasping a clump of grass or forbs in the distal portion of the trunk and shaking or slapping it vigorously to remove un...
Shake-Tree
Pressing the forehead or upwardly-stretched trunk against the trunk of a tree and, in a series of sharp pushes, using th...
Sheltering
An infant seeking shelter or security by standing or sleeping under the belly or legs of its mother or other caregiver. ...
Shepherding
Adult, adolescent or juvenile females gathering, guarding, herding, escorting, retrieving, leading, or driving, as a she...
Silence
Approaching or investigating the body of a dead elephant, or an elephant carcass, in unusual silence. Observed by all ag...
Silly-Trunk
Flopping the trunk about. This behavior is commonly observed among newborns, though not among older individuals. It does...
Simulate-Estrus
An adult female acting as if she is in estrus, or simulating estrus, in the presence of her first time estrous daughter ...
Sitting
An individual adopting a position in which its weight is supported by its rump and forefeet. A sitting elephant may ofte...
Skirt-Around
In the presence of high-ranking individuals (at a fallen tree, a salt-lick, a limited water source or mud-wallow, or in ...
Slap
Flinging the trunk toward and audibly hitting another elephant. References: Lee 1986; Kahl & Armstrong 2000; Poole & Gra...
Slide
An individual getting down a muddy bank while maintaining continuous contact with its slippery surface. Many different t...
Slide
An individual getting down a muddy bank while maintaining continuous contact with its slippery surface. Many different t...
Sneeze
A sneezing, wheezing, or coughing sound, that we assume is made for the purpose of clearing the nasal passages. Referenc...
Sniff-Dung
Placing the tip of the trunk over or on a dung pile and sniffing it; presumably for the purpose of assessing physical or...
Sniff-Ground
Placing the tip of the trunk over or on the ground and sniffing; presumably often for the purpose of assessing physical ...
Sniff-Semen
Following a Mating, the mated female or her companions using their trunk fingers to sniff semen (exuding from the penis ...
Sniff-Urine
Touching the tip of the trunk over, on, or in urine or a spot of urine soaked soil presumably for the purpose of assessi...
Snorkel
When Swimming, Bathing or during social play in deep water, using the trunk as a snorkel to breathe. Also employed by el...
Snort
A short (typically less than a second in duration), sharp, noisy, broadband sound produced by purposefully blowing air t...
Snort-Rumble
A Snort followed by a Rumble in one exhalation. References: Poole 2011. (Full reference list)...
Snort-Trumpet
A forceful expulsion of air through the trunk creating a short, sharp, noisy, broadband snort followed by a more tonal t...
Snort-Trumpet
A forceful expulsion of air through the trunk creating a short, sharp, noisy, broadband snort followed by a more tonal t...
Social-Rubbing
Approaching a stationary individual from behind and rubbing the head, ear, shoulder and/or flank against the standing in...
Social-Trumpet
Trumpets occurring within the context of intense social interactions such as a Greeting-Ceremony, Mating-Pandemonium, Bi...
Solicit-Food
An infant, calf or juvenile Standing or Walking parallel to its mother or other family member, with trunk raised toward ...
Solicit-Guarding
An estrous female following a particular male (usually in musth) or, when pursued by smaller males, rapidly moving to st...
Solicit-Guarding
An estrous female following a particular male or, when pursued by smaller males, rapidly moving to stand next to the lar...
Solicit-Help
An infant, calf, juvenile, adolescent or adult elephant vocalising with distress calls such as a Cry-Rumble, Grumble-Rum...
Solicit-Play
Stretching of the head down and forward, Chin-Out, sometimes folding the trunk under and resting it on the tusks, or pla...
Solicit-Sparring
Stretching of the head down and forward, Chin-Out, sometimes folding the trunk under and resting it on the tusks, or pla...
Solicit-Suckling
An infant or calf engaged in a directed walk parallel to its mother and engaged in any of the following behaviors: adopt...
Sparring
Elephants, especially young males, engaging in gentle touching (e.g. Check-Tusk, Tail-Swatting, Trunk-to-Temporal-Glands...
Sparring-Initiation
Actions or movement that cause a bout of Sparring to begin. Sparring-Initiation includes many of the same behaviors that...
Splash-Submerge
In a movement reminiscent of breaching in whales, an elephant draws its head and chest up out of the water into a vertic...
Splash-With-Foot
An elephant using its leg and foot to purposefully slap at the surface of a body of water creating dramatic splash for v...
Splash-with-Trunk
An elephant using its trunk to purposefully slap at the surface of a body of water creating dramatic splash for visual a...
Spray-Water
Sucking water into the trunk and then, while swinging the trunk and pinching the trunk-fingers together, spraying water ...
Squeak
An elephant exhaling through the trunk while pinching the trunk fingers together and making a high-frequency squeaking s...
Squeal-Trumpet
When highly aroused such as during a Mating-Pandemonium, Bonding-Ceremony, or Greeting-Ceremony, elephants may produce h...
Squelch
Often repeated wrinkling or ‘scrunching’ up of the trunk and forcing air through it to produce a ‘squelching’ sound. App...
Stand-Guard
Among families, (typically) an adult female, who places herself on the edge of her family, between them and a perceived ...
Stand-Over-Bush
Standing over a bush in apparent Contemplation. The elephant may gather the branches of a bush into a clump with the tru...
Standing
A cessation of Grazing, Browsing, Walking, Drinking, Comfort or other activity, but not of attentiveness. References: Po...
Standing-Tall
An elephant Standing or moving with head held well above shoulders, and, with Chin-Up and Eyes-Open looking down at her ...
Standing-to-Mate
An estrous female standing still ‘holding-her-ground’ (as opposed to stepping forward or moving away) or pushing back as...
Steady-with-Trunk
Flexing part of the trunk to make it rigid, and using it as a crutch to steady, give support to, or buttress the body wh...
Step-On
Using a forefoot or forefeet to step on or stand on another. This behavior is primarily observed during Social Play wher...
Step-On-Break-Sapling
Placing the foot on a sapling and using the force of the leg to bend the sapling over and break it. References: Poole & ...
Step-On-Sapling-Slice-With-Foot
Grasping a branchlet on a sapling with the trunk, stepping on the sapling with one foot and slicing the branchlet off wi...
Stow-Branch
Using the distal portion of the trunk to tuck a branch between the base of the trunk and a tusk, to store the item for l...
Strip-Bark
Using the tusks and fingers of the trunk tip to loosen and remove tree bark. The bark is typically removed by pulling it...
Strip-Branch
Curling the distal portion of the trunk tightly around the base or mid-section of a branchlet and dragging the curled tr...
Submerge
An elephant descending such that his or her head and/or entire body is completely below the surface of an area of water....
Suckle-Face
An adult female while Suckling an infant or calf, or a juvenile female while Comfort-Suckling an infant or calf, standin...
Suckle-Stance
An adult or juvenile female standing with a forefoot placed in a forward position thus allowing an infant or calf access...
Suckling
An infant or calf standing sucking at the mother's breast with its trunk lifted back over its head (to allow the mouth a...
Supplant
A passive, or non-aggressive, approaching and displacing of another individual, typically, though not necessarily, over ...
Sweep-off-Dirt
Grasping a clump of grass with the trunk and sweeping it up and against the ridges on the underside of the trunk to remo...
Swimming
An elephant propelling him or herself through water using fore- and hindlegs. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full ref...
T
Tail-Fly-Swatting
Using the tail to swat insects. Swishing or slapping sounds may be heard as the tail moves through the air or is used to...
Tail-Raising
Raising the tail. The tail of a relaxed elephant hangs down. Fearful, highly playful or sexually or socially aroused ele...
Tail-Swatting
Using the tail to forcefully swat or hit an elephant behind it to indicate that the elephant should back off, tap an ele...
Temporin
Streaming of secretion from the temporal glands of non-musth elephants. Temporin may be ephemeral or sustained and is mo...
Test-Substrate
Using the distal portion of the trunk to check or test uneven, loose, slippery, deep or other potentially dangerous subs...
Thermoregulatory-Ear-Flapping
Slow, rhythmic, sustained flapping of the ears as the elephant continues with normal feeding, resting or other activity....
Threat-Rumble
A medium-long slightly undulating Rumble produced by adult females when aggressively Advancing-Toward other elephants. T...
Throw-Debris
Grasping and lifting or uprooting vegetation, a rock or other object with the distal portion of the trunk and using move...
Tool-Use
Holding in its trunk, an object found in its environment, and using it as a tool in order to achieve a goal such as acqu...
Touch-Carcass-with-Foot
Using a fore- or hind-foot to investigate or touch a dead elephant or its bones. This may include hovering a foot over t...
Touch-Carcass-with-Head
Resting the head against the body of a recently dead elephant. References: Goldenberg & Wittemyer 2019, Poole & Granli ...
Touch-Carcass-with-Trunk
Using the trunk to investigate or touch a dead elephant or its bones. References: Bere 1966; Sikes 1971; Croze 1971; Dou...
Touch-Self
Self-directed touching of the face (mouth, ear, trunk, tusk or temporal gland) or chest, with the fingers or tip of the ...
Touch-Trunk-Tips
Raising or moving the distal portion of the trunk to move the fingers into such a position as to touch and explore the f...
Touch-Wound
Using the trunk to touch a wound or painful part of the body. Elephants are often observed to repeatedly touch or Dust t...
Tracking
An elephant persistently following the scent of another, by actively scenting with his trunk, sweeping the ground back a...
Truck-Like-Call
A highly unusual, idiosyncratic and learned call that sounds like a distant lorry, foghorn or didgeridoo with a fundamen...
Trump
A shortened form of a Trumpet may be heard during Social Play and is known as a Trump. References: Berg 1983. (Full refe...
Trumpet
A forceful expulsion of air through the trunk, creating a trumpeting sound. Trumpets come in several forms. Trumpets are...
Trumpet-Blast
A powerful, relatively long and seemingly sustained, Trumpet lasting 1-1.5 seconds in duration produced when an elephant...
Trunk-Bounce
An elephant bouncing the distal and outer portion of a curled trunk on the ground. The Trunk-Bounce seen in Asian elepha...
Trunk-Bounce-Drag
An elephant dragging and occasionally slightly bouncing the distal and outer portion of a curled trunk on the ground mak...
Trunk-Coiled
A Charging elephant may coil the trunk tightly under. Such Charges are typically silent and the elephant’s head is often...
Trunk-Curl
A male in musth curling and uncurling the distal portion of the trunk in a sinuous, snake-like motion usually while trun...
Trunk-Curl-Squeeze-Rip-Grass
The trunk is elongated and the distal end curled and flattened, or pressed, sideways on the ground. The elephant repeate...
Trunk-Curled-Under
Standing, Walking or Charging with the distal portion or entire trunk slightly, moderately or extremely curved inward, o...
Trunk-Dragging
An elephant dragging the distal and outer portion of a curled trunk on the ground making a rasping sound; often leaves a...
Trunk-Flick-Down
In a rapid movement, the distal portion of the trunk is curled up and around in a whorl and then flicked downward. Somet...
Trunk-Fly-Swatting
Using the trunk to swat insects. Brushing or dampened slapping sounds may be heard as the trunk sweeps against the body ...
Trunk-Nudge
A mother, or allomother, using the trunk to nudge an infant or calf awake, as when she or the group is ready to depart. ...
Trunk-Push-Down
Placing the trunk over the head of an opponent and pushing down. This behavior is observed during Social Play and in Esc...
Trunk-Squirt
Holding liquid (e.g. water or mud) in the trunk or between the trunk fingers and, with a sharp exhalation, causing the l...
Trunk-Sucking
Sucking on own trunk. Appears to be done when unsure, apparently for comfort. Infants and calves are typically observed ...
Trunk-Suction
Apparently blocking the end of the trunk and then forcefully sucking or blowing air into the sinues such that the sides ...
Trunk-Sweep
An exaggerated form of Periscope-Trunk in which lead individuals in a family use a dramatic, highly visible, repeated sw...
Trunk-to-Body
Reaching of the trunk toward or touching the body of another. This behavior is observed in all age/sex groups, although ...
Trunk-to-Ear
Reaching of the trunk to touch or to sniff the ear oriface of another. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full reference ...
Trunk-to-Face
Reaching of the trunk to touch, or near touch the face of another. Trunk-to-Face is a common behavior and occurs between...
Trunk-to-Genitals
Reaching of the trunk to touch, or near touch the genitals of another. Trunk-to-Genitals is a common behavior and occurs...
Trunk-to-Genitals-Suck
Reaching of the trunk to the genitals of a female, putting the trunk fingers inside her genitalia and making audible suc...
Trunk-to-Infant-at-Breast
An obviously attentive adult or adolescent female caring for a newborn, demonstratively swinging her trunk back to touch...
Trunk-to-Mouth
Reaching of the trunk to touch or near touch, or place into the mouth of another. Trunk-to-Mouth is a very common elepha...
Trunk-to-Temporal-Glands
Reaching of the trunk to touch, or near touch the temporal gland of another typically in a Social Play or Affiliative co...
Trunk-Touch
A general term for an elephant touching another with the trunk. References: Poole and Granli 2003; Goldenberg & Wittemye...
Trunk-Toward
Using the trunk to point toward or sniff toward an individual, object or scent of interest. The trunk is held relatively...
Trunk-Toward-Carcass
Using the trunk to point toward or sniff toward the body or bones of a dead elephant. The trunk is held relatively strai...
Trunk-Tuck
Folding the trunk under and holding its end off the ground by tucking it between the base of the trunk and a tusk or, al...
Trunk-Twining
A mutual entwining of trunks. Trunk-Twining occurs in Social Play as a gentle contact form of Sparring, during which two...
Trunk-Twisting
Twisting the distal portion or tip of the trunk back and forth. Most often observed in situations where an elephant is a...
Tusk-Clank
During Sparring, Dueling, Greeting or during the formation of Coalitions, such as High-Fiving or End-Zone-Dance, elephan...
Tusk-Ground
Bending or kneeling down and tusking the ground and, often, uplifting clods of soil and vegetation. When elephants engag...
Tusking
Poking another elephant with the tip of the tusks. This is a ‘less polite’ form of Pushing another elephant. In Aggressi...
U
Unnatural-Gait
Walking with an abnormal stride or gait, limping. An Unnatural-Gait may be due to injury or an underlying condition, suc...
Uproot-Forb
Grasping a forb with the trunk and pulling to uproot it. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full reference list)...
Urinating
The term Urinating refers to normal elimination as well as social or sexual responses. Normal elimination may stimulate ...
Urine-Dribbling
A musth male showing continual dribbling of urine from a retracted and sheathed penis. The flow may vary from an intermi...
V
W
Waiting
Standing idly, lingering, loitering until other elephants either catch up or are alerted to the signallers attempt to in...
Waiting
Standing idly, lingering, loitering until other elephants either catch up or are alerted to the signallers attempt to in...
Walk-Away
Walking away from another elephant in a non-submissive or non-avoidance manner. References: Poole & Granli 2021. (Full r...
Walk-Toward
Walking in the direction of another elephant in a non-threatening manner; an approach. References: Poole & Granli 2021. ...
Walk-Wait
Alternatively Walking a few steps and then standing idly while Waiting for other elephants to either catch up or to init...
Walking
A slow to moderate gait in which the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders rising and falling while the foo...
Wariness
An estrous female acting vigilant and wary (Chin-Up, Ears-Stiff, Tail-Raising) in the presence of males, gazing at them ...
Wash-Water-Plants
An elephant using its trunk to grasp water plants, such as Water-Lillies, and then swish the trunkful of plants back and...