Listening

The body and extremities suddenly cease moving and the elephant Stands Head-Raising and Ear-Spreading with Ears-Stiff. The elephant may swing its head from side to side, Head-Swinging, as if to localise a sound. An individual rarely stands stock still except when Listening or Resting, usually some part of the body, ears, trunk, tail is in motion. Listening may be distinguished from Resting, during which an elephant relaxes it's head and ears allowing its head to hang below its shoulders and its ears to flop forward. All age/sex group may be observed Listening.

References: Heffner & Heffner 1982; Poole et al 1988; Langbauer et al. 1989; Poole & Moss 1989; McComb et al. 2003; Poole & Granli 2003; O’Connell-Rodwell et al 2006; Poole & Granli 2011. (Full reference list)

This behavioral constellation includes the following behaviors: Ear-Spreading, Ears-Stiff, Head-Raising, Head-Swinging, Standing and occurs in the following context(s): Advertisement & Attraction, Attentive, Vigilance

Listening

Context: Attentive (1)

Viajante is acting as if he is in musth. He walks away from mud-splashing Trunk-Dragging. Then, as this clip begins he looks to be Tracking. Then stops momentarily to Listen, standing with a J-Trunk. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Attentive (2)

A young male stops to Listen, standing still with Ears-Stiff. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Attentive (3)

In Slo-Mo: gm0025 looks to be in musth - he is feeding with Ears-Stiff and then stops moving to Listen and then appears to go toward what he heard. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Attentive (4)

A young mother is walking alone with her day old infant. She stops as if resting and then we see her raise and turn her head and spread and stiffen her ears, Listening. Immediately after her Ear-Flapping and Mouth-Opening indicates she is calling and likely giving an answering Contact-Rumble. Then she Listens again. We believe we hear a distant rumble in response to her. She pauses Listening and then gives a second softer rumble. She is separated from her family and her infant is vulnerable to predators without them. We believe she is looking for her family. (Maasai Mara, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Attentive (5)

Ruby is walking with her calf. She stops still, cocks her ears and Listens. As she stands Listening we can see her Eye-Blinking and J-Sniffing. (Maasai Mara, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Attentive (6)

A group of elephants is foraging on Faidherbia drepanolobium when one of a couple of elephants out of view rumble - at least two overlapping calls, followed by a more powerful rumble, which could be a contact-call. The female in view stops feeding, raises her head and Listens after as if waiting for an answer. She also turns her head - Head-Swinging - as if trying to localize a sound, and she briefly exhibits J-Trunk . Note that other members of the group stop feeding, too, all Freezing and Listening. The guinea-fowl are alarming, which might indicate a predator or other disturbance - in which case this would be a Vigilance context. (Maasai Mara, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Attentive (7)

Nalakite f0736 is feeding when an elephant out of view gives a loud rumble that sounds and looks like a Contact-Rumble. Nalakite stops feeding turns and slightly raises her head and Listens attentively. Then she walks a few steps, chews 5-6 times, puts another trunkful of food in her mouth and then holds stock-still to Listen again. She exhibits Eye-Blinking. The first rumble could have been a contact-call and perhaps Nalakite's second Listening was in response to a distant contact-answer that we can't hear. (Maasai Mara, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Attention (8)

Big Mama stands on the edge of her family, stock-still, ears cocked Listening. There is a loud plane flying over so it is not possible to know what else she might be listening to. (Maasai Mara, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Attentive (9)

Rui is in musth and Mud-Splashing. He pauses in his splashing to Listen - Freezing and with Ears-Stiff and his trunk held in a J-Trunk position. After the second bout of Listening he Ear-Folds and gives a short and barely audible Musth-Rumble. He turns and gives a little Musth-Rumble again. As he leaves the mud-wallow he pauses to Listen with Ears-Stiff. This behavior - Mud-Splashing associated with Ear-Folding, Musth-Rumbling and Listening is typical musth male behavior. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Attentive (10)

The C family is walking along when they hear something. Bullet-Hole, gf0032, stops. She Listens with Ears-Stiff and displays slight Head-Swinging before she lightly Ear-Flaps, indicating that she may be Rumbling. Corajosa, gf0054, walks up next to her and Listens, also with Ears-Stiff and displaying slight Head-Swinging. Her mouth appears slightly open as if she, too, may be calling. There is no audio for this clip so we can't be sure. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Attention (11)

Rui is in musth and is Tracking and Mud-Splashing. He pauses in his Tracking and splashing to Listen. His stops Tracking Freezing and with Ears-Stiff and Foot-Swinging. Then he stops splashing Freezinf, Ears-Stiff his trunk held in a J-Trunk position. After the second bout of Listening he Ear-Folds and gives a short and barely audible Musth-Rumble. He turns and gives a little Musth-Rumble again. As he leaves the mud-wallow he pauses to Listen with Ears-Stiff. And again faces us Listening and Head-Swinging.

This behavior - Mud-Splashing associated with Ear-Folding, Musth-Rumbling and Listening is typical musth male behavior. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Vigilance (1)

Provocadora, gf0012, is walking when she seems to detect our presence. (Clip in slo-mo) She stops, turns to face us, Ear-Spreading and then Freezing. She draws herself up to full height, Chin-Up, Listening, before lowering her head and continuing on. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Vigilance (2)

After much contemplation Corajosa, gf0054, Head-Shakes and Advance-Toward us and then Stand-Tall facing us and considering us - She Freezes - Ear-Spreading, Ears-Stiff, Head-Swinging - Listening. She then turns and walks away Initiating-Movement. She is followed by Bullet, gf0032 and gf0152 and 6 calves. They walk about 30 paces and then Freeze and Listen, Ears-Stiff. They stand for some time and then take another 10 paces before Corojosa Freezes again, Listening after she Back-Toward Bullet. All Freeze, Ears-Stiff, Corojosa with Open-Mouth. Finally, gf0152 Initiate-Movement and they leave. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Vigilance (3)

The V family has been monitoring our presence for some time. This is the day Vigilante, gf0064, got her name as she has been extremely vigilant. As this clip begins the entire family is Listening and Freezing. They want to depart. In part they are Listening for any sound from us and in part they are Waiting for their matriarch, Valda, gf0068, to decide it is time to go, but she is still Listening for us. The camera pans across the group from right to left, all Freezing and Listening, to where Valda stands Listening. Finally she turns to face the direction of her Waiting family and as she begins to move (Movement-Initiation) everyone moves in unison. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Vigilance (4)

Matriarch Nalakite (tuskless female), her family and associating males are walking up an incline through Faidherbia woodland. Nalakite takes up the rear position in the group. We hear the sound of cattle bells meaning that Maasai and their livestock are in close proximity. Nalakite exhibits Tail-Raising and then Freezes and lifts her head and cocks her ears in a Listening posture. She turns her head from side to side - Head-Swinging - as if trying to localize a sound. We hear the alarm calls of guinea fowl and wildebeest. (Maasai Mara, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Vigilance (5)

gf0034 of the F family stands Listening, her Ears-Stiff, Head-Swinging and her trunk catching the wind in a J-Trunk position. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Vigilance (6)

Rui stands Listening his Ears-Stiff and his trunk in a J-Trunk position. Then he Advances-Toward us and climbs on a termite mound and Stands-Tall on that. Notice how he does a slight Head-Dip before going up on the mound. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Vigilance (7)

Berta, Gf0009, matriarch of the B family, is in a group with Emilia, gf0161, and others. Berta is Listening - Ears-Stiff and Head-Swinging. She has a newborn on her left side and a 4.5 year old calf on her right - out of view. The older calf comes around to our side and Solicit-Suckling x 2 but fails due to Berta's concern about us. The calf goes back to other side. (Gorongosa, Mozambique)

Listening

Context: Vigilance (8)

Qasima and part of her family are by the KH4 water hole when a vehicle (off road photographer) departs. Because this vehicle is off-road and she is not used to them being there, she is suspicious. She Listens to the vehicle depart and follows where it is going by Head-Swinging (to help localize the sound). She also uses Periscope-Trunk, drawing attention to potential danger, and then departs followed by her calves. Other members of the family pay attention to her, are alert and use J-Trunk - note that even the female who is turned away is alerted - perhaps by Qasima's silence. We did not hear any Rumble. (Amboseli, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Advertisement & Attraction (1)

Pascal is in full musth. He is standing in a waterhole Listening and Drinking. As the clip starts he is Listening, then he Ear-Waves and Musth-Rumbles and then reaches to Drink again. There is another musth male in the vicinity but they have not yet met. (Amboseli, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Advertisement & Attraction (2)

Pascal is in full musth. He has been Listening and Musth-Rumbling in and beside a water hole. Now he has begun feeding. He keeps pausing in his feeding to Listen. In this clip he pauses to Listen, takes another trunkful and then walks forward Foot-Scuffing, Trunk-Tragging, and then Musth-Rumbles and Ear-Waves. We know, in retrospect, that he is about to meet musth male Emo and likely knows Emo is close by. (Amboseli, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Advertisement & Attraction (3)

Pascal is in full musth. Esau and another musth male have just had a short fight. Esau won and chased the other male in a Prolonged-Pursuit right past where Pascal is standing Listening. He Listens and then begins to go in the direction they went, Tracking the group and sniffing the air with Periscope-Trunk. (Amboseli, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Advertisement & Attraction (4)

There is an estrous female nearby who has just given an Estrous-Roar. Another musth male has gone to look for her while this second musth male is left Listening, perhaps trying to work out which direction may offer the best mating opportunity later. (Amboseli, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Advertisement & Attraction (5)

Pascal is in full musth and is feeding on grass. A plane is passing overhead. He stops during his feeding to Listen. Then he begins to walk and Musth-Rumbles. This behavior of responding to low frequency sounds by Listening and Musth-Rumbling is typical of musth males. (Amboseli, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Advertisement & Attraction (6)

Nastya is in estrus nearby. We are filming a male who is Drinking. Suddenly he stops, Ears-Stiff, Listening. He turns his head from one side to the other. We hear an Estrous-Running-Rumble followed by an Estrous-Roar. He immediately leaves Drinking and disappears from view heading in the direction of the commotion.

This is a good example showing that elephants differentiate between different call types. Note that he became aware of something several seconds before we heard the calls - likely he picked up the running footsteps. (Amboseli, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Advertisement & Attraction (7)

X004 is in musth and is looking for receptive females. He is alternatively engaging in Musth-Walk, Musth-Rumble, Tusk-Ground and periods of Listening. In this clip he stops twice to Listen. We checked the spectrogram for distant calls that he may have heard but there were none that we could see.

We know from our previous published work that musth males spend much more time Listening than other elephants, and significantly more when they are alone and searching for females. (Amboseli, Kenya)

Listening

Context: Advertisement & Attraction (8)

The clip starts with X004 in musth having paused to Urinate and Defecate. He Listens - looking for receptive females. He resumes walking east. After about 10 steps he stops and orients south and Listens. He turns west, appearing to Musth-Rumble and walks a few paces and Listens again. Then he turns and resumes his walk east.

We checked the spectrogram and found no sign of any elephants calling. Regular Listening is typical of lone musth males who are searching for receptive females. (Amboseli, Kenya)